Violent Media and Children

Introduction From the perspective of most parents violent content in the form of fist fights, shootings, murders and an assortment of other similar actions should not be viewed by children due to the possibility of subsequent emulation or if such actions have an adverse impact on the way in which their child develops.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Violent Media and Children specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Several studies examining early childhood development do indicate that a child’s formative years (age 4 to 12) is a period in which they begin to develop the behavioral characteristics and ideologies that influence their subsequent adult behaviors and actions (Hansen Zambo, 2007). Aspects related to religion, culture and ideologies introduced during this early stage of development reflect well into adulthood and become an integral aspect of who a person is to become (Hansen Zambo, 2007). It is based on this developmental backdrop that parents and society developed the notion that early onset exposure to violent content will have an adverse effect on a child’s development and as such children should be inculcated early on with positive societal messages in the form of cooperation, peaceful action and other similar behavioral characteristics that espouse the creation of a socially acceptable persona. Gerard Jones on the other hand espouses a completely different approach to early childhood development in which he states that the introduction of violent media in the form of comic books, cartoons and other similar forms of consumable media actually have a positive effect on children resulting in the development of independent, socially well adjusted children that from an early age are capable of utilizing what they perceive from violent media as a method of overcoming early onset fears and become more socially well adjusted as compared to their peers that have been exposed t o little if next to no violent content. Jones presents the notion that violent media enables children to experience the full gamut of emotions denied to them by their parents and society. In the words of Melanie Moore â€Å"it enables them to explore the inescapable feelings that they’ve been taught to deny and to reintegrate those feelings into a more whole, more complete and more resilient selfhood†. While such notions are relatively alien to the current prevailing societal consensus regarding children and violence it does make a valid argument. Rage and anger are actually normal human emotions, while society disparages their utilization and expression it must be noted that they are normal feelings that have been with humans since the beginning of evolution. Coming to a complete realization of their effective utilization while at the same time limiting their use through calm analytic thinking is actually a rite of passage for most individuals.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More What must be understood though is that Jones is not trying to espouse that children should be violent rather he presents the notion that aspects related to violence such as rage can actually have a positive effect on children. In his words â€Å"rage can be an energizing emotion, a shot of courage to push us to resist greater threats, take more control, than we ever thought we could†. It is aspects related to courage, taking control of life and energizing ones actions that Jones looks at as positive aspects of violent media for children. In fact a cursory glance of most violent media directed at children shows stories which teaches individuals to overcome fears, aspire to greater heights and overcome adversity in order to achieve their dreams. Violent media directed at children should not be treated as a device that encourages violent actions but rather as a method of encouraging proper development which takes into account the gamut of all human emotions and not just a select few. Impact of Violent Media on Children Studies examining the impact of violent media on children have drawn up conflicting conclusions with some stating that violent media adversely affects children while others point out that there is little effect at all (Schechter et al., 2009). What must be understood is that the concept of violent media and its exposure to children has been generalized to include all forms of violent media and not separate it into varying degrees. In the case of the argument presented by Jones it can be seen that he argues his point on the basis of the distinctly low level type of violence seen in comic books and some action based cartoons. Some studies involving the behavioral growth of children utilize high levels of violence as seen in several of today’s action movies and shows, however they tend to categorize these elements under the same genre as low level violent media (Schechter et al., 2009). While it can be argued that showing children violent movies such as Saw or Kill Bill could cause the development of abnormal behavioral characteristics the fact is most children are more interested in low level types of violence as seen in comic books and cartoons as compared to the high levels seen in mature shows and movies utilized by researchers in their studies. Studies examining the active interests of children unsurprisingly show a predilection towards watching popular cartoons, anime or reading comic books (Browne Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2005). It was noted that 9 out of 10 children preferred watching cartoons and anime over mature programming and as such this shows that research utilizing violent mature programming as the basis of their examination are inherently flawed since most children prefer programs geared towards children. Another factor that should be taken into consideration is the fact that even if a child should watch a violent mature show or movie it must be questioned as to whether or not they can actually understand most of the mature themes involved. On average children have a limited knowledge on the types of adult themes present in movies and shows geared towards mature audiences (Browne Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2005).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Violent Media and Children specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In fact it was noted by one study examining the ability of children to accurately depict themes in mature rated programming that the respondents barely knew any of the actual relevance of the themes in the shows (Browne Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2005). Another notable factor that should be taken into account is the fact that even though several cartoons from the 1980s to the present show varying levels of violence long term studies examining the behavioral characteristics of children exposed to this particu lar form of media showed next to no abnormal behavioral characteristics. In fact most of the children involved grew up to become relatively well adjusted individuals with few behavioral problems. It is based on this that it can be should be stated that certain forms of violent media have been proven to have little to no adverse effects on the behavioral development of children and as such should not be considered detrimental towards the proper development of children on the basis of the content being somewhat violent. Pop Culture and Identification One of the prevailing arguments against letting children see violent media is the supposed potential that exists of children imitating what they see in comic books and television shows (Huesmann, 2010). Studies examining the effect pop culture has on children reveal that on average children, especially young children, have the tendency to emulate child pop culture icons such as Hannah Montana, Spongebob Squarepants and other similar forms of identifiable imagery (Huesmann, 2010). In fact this behavioral aspect is even noted in members of the adult community and as such is the basis for many arguments stating the potentially harmful effects violent media could have. What must be understood is that the arguments being presented neglect to take into account the fact that parental influences play a contributing and limiting factor to some aspects of a child’s behavior and as such should be trusted as a means of enabling children to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong (Anderson, 2011). In fact, various studies have even shown that parental influences play a major role in personality development resulting in either proper growth and maturity or the instilment of negative personality traits similar to immaturity, dependence, and an overall sense of being unable to become self-reliant.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The development of a child’s behavior is not dependent on consumable media alone but rather on how parent’s influence and mold a child’s behavior. As such even though violent media is introduced to a child it can be stated that so long as parents are there to enable a child to distinguish right from wrong then there is little cause for concern. It must be noted though that in cases where there is a distinct degree of parental absenteeism a child’s behavioral development will thus be predominantly influenced by external sources which should be a cause for concern since such instances have been shown to be influential factors in the development of abnormal personality traits. Development and Human Emotion Studies examining the prevalence of independent action and initiative in children show that on average children with the most well rounded set of emotional development often show the most drive and initiative when it comes to independent action and leaders hip roles (Wagner, 2004). While Jones may not explicitly state it in his article it is actually implied that children who are not exposed to certain types of violent media tend to not develop independent personalities but rather take on dependent behavioral characteristics. It must be noted that society’s adherance to the belief that violence is bad for children has resulted in parents developing parental practices that espouse peaceful behavior and nonviolence. In fact such practices have grown to such an extent that the concept of social conformity and peaceful behavior is often forced upon children resulting in the suppression of the development of certain aspects of their emotional makeup. This results in children developing behavioral characteristics akin to dependence, conformity and a distinct lack of initiative due to a form of trauma in which they associate aspects related to socially unacceptable conduct to the suppressive actions of their parents. This causes them to withdraw into themselves rather than become more expressive. As Jones notes in his article children that are allowed to be exposed to violent media tend to be more expressive, open minded and have more access to the full gamut of their emotional capacities compared to children whose emotional growth has been inadvertently suppressed by their parents. What must be understood is the fact that current day parental practices assume that exposure to violence is bad based on preconceived societal notions when in fact there have been few studies which have actually successfully connected violent media exposure to the children developing into violent adults. In fact for the most part children exposed to violent cartoon series or comic books appear, for all intents and purposes, perfectly normal and turn into well rounded individuals. It must be noted that the parental predilection to believe that violent media has negative implications on children is grounded in institutional theory. Ins titutional theory specifically states that people have the tendency to adhere to traditional institutions rather than move towards more efficient newer institutions due to their belief that older institutions are more stable due to prolonged length of time that they’ve been around (Hess Hess, 1999). In this particular case parents adhere to a specific type of social institution that believes that violent media will create violent children and adults. Several studies examining parental predilections towards this particular type of institution have noted that when questioned as to why they adhere to the social institution in question the essence of all answers given show that parents do so due to their belief that since the institution has been around for such a long period of time and that it is widely accepted means that it must be right (Spitzer, 2005). What must be understood is that just because a social institution is widely accepted and has been around for a long time d oesn’t make it automatically right. For example, one of the most widely accepted social institutions in the past was the belief that men were superior to women, this resulted in women being thought of as incapable of doing certain jobs, that the place of a woman was at home and that women did not have the right to decide the future of a country. Suffice it to say, such a view has been recently debunked however it must be noted that it had persisted for several hundred years with most of human culture adhering to its tenets. It is based on this that the social institution advocating that violent media is bad for children should not be immediately credited as being absolutely correct. Historical precedent has shown that not all widely accepted societal views are correct and thus this one should not be considered as an absolute truth. Conclusion Based on the various examples presented it can be seen that the preconceived notions attached to violent media are in fact fallacious a nd heavily embedded in parental practices that originate from a social institution that may not necessarily be correct. As it was shown by both Jones in his article and in the various other studies cited, children that are exposed to violent media in the form of comic books and cartoons develop into mature and behaviorally stable adults with few problems. In fact when taking the views of Jones into consideration it can even be stated that the introduction of violent media can in fact enable children to develop stronger and more independent personalities that will enable them to express themselves better, take the initiative more and be more likely to overcome adverse situations as compared to their peers that were not exposed to violent media. While it may be true that when parents prevent their children from viewing violent media they are under the belief that they are in effect helping their children grow into better adults but the truth is what they are doing is in effect stuntin g the full emotional growth of their children. As explained earlier traits related to violence such as aggression are inherent parts of a person’s normal emotional makeup and as such are a necessary aspect in enabling an individual to grow into an emotionally stable person. Negative emotional qualities help to balance the positive aspects of an individuals personality so as to enable them to live a balanced life. By denying children the ability to develop the full gamut of their behaviors from an early stage parents are in effect hindering them from being able to mature at a normal pace which may actually lead to the development of abnormal personalities. This can take the form of dependence, childishness and the inability to take care of oneself without being instructed. It is based on this that in the case of allowing children to view violent media this paper agrees with the argument of Jones and also advocates it use so as to enable children to develop a more well rounded set of behavioral traits. Reference List Anderson, C. A. (2011). Violent Video Games and Other Media Violence (Part I).  Pediatrics for Parents, 27(1/2), 28. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Browne, K. D., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. (2005). The influence of violent media on children and adolescents: a public-health approach. Lancet, 365(9460), 702-710. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Hansen, C., Zambo, D. (2007). Loving and Learning with Wemberly and David: Fostering Emotional Development in Early Childhood Education. Early Childhood Education Journal, 34(4), 273-278. Hess, T. H., Hess, K. D. (1999). The effects of violent media on adolescent inkblot responses: Implications for clinical and.. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(4), 439-445. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Huesmann, L. (2010). Nailing the Coffin Shut on Doubts That Violent Video Games Stimulate Aggression: Comment on Anderson et al. (2010). Psychological  Bulletin, 136(2), 179-181. Schechter, D. S., Gross, A., Willheim, E., McCaw, J., Turner, J., Myers, M. M., †¦ Gleason, M. (2009). Is maternal PTSD associated with greater exposure of very young children to violent media?. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(6), 658-662. Spitzer, M. (2005). Influence of violent media on children and adolescents. Lancet, 365(9468), 1387-1388. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Wagner, C. G. (2004). Aggression and Violent Media. Futurist, 38(4), 16. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. This essay on Violent Media and Children was written and submitted by user Tyrell W. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Microsystem Bronfenbrenner Analysis Essay Example

Microsystem Bronfenbrenner Analysis Essay Example Microsystem Bronfenbrenner Analysis Paper Microsystem Bronfenbrenner Analysis Paper Bronfenbrenner’s theory known as the ecological systems theory views at a child’s development the perspective of the system of interactions that form his or her environment (Addison, 1992). He describes intricate ‘levels’ of environment, each one having consequences on a child’s development. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory looks at the child’s environment in terms of its quality and context. Recently there has been a shift as some have renamed the theory â€Å"bioecological systems theory† to stress that a child’s own biology is a principal environment fueling her/his development. Thus, a child’s development is stimulated and steered by the associations between factors in the child’s maturing biology, such as his immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape (Addison, 1992). Alterations or clash in any one layer will ripple all the way through the other layers. According to Bronfenbrenner, for one to be able to learn a child’s development then, he must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well. The ecological theory as articulated Bronfenbrenner identifies four types of systems that contain roles, norms and rules that shape development. The systems comprise a microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystems, and macrosystem. The microsystem covers the associations and interactions a child has with her immediate environment. Microsystem includes structures such as family, school, neighborhood, or childcare surroundings in which the child is operating (Berk, 2000). Within this echelon interaction impacts in two directions- both away from the child as well as toward the child. For instance, the parent of the child can affect the child’s beliefs and behavior in as much as the child can affect the behavior and beliefs of the parent/s. it is acknowledged that at the microsystem echelon, bi-directional influences are strongest and have the most impact on the child. The mesosystem is two Microsystems interacting, for instance the link between a child’s home and school, connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between his church and his neighborhood, etc. Thus, it offers the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem (Berk, 2000). The exosystem comprises of an environment in which a child is not directly concerned and is external to his/her experience however, it affects him anyway. Structures in this stratum affect the child’s development by interact with some structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). An example of exosystem is a parent’s workplace or community-based family resources (Edwards, 1992). Whereas the child may not be openly implicated at this level, but he/she does experience the positive or negative force involved with the interaction with his own system. The macrosystem is considered as the outermost layer in the child’s environment. This stratum does not offer specified framework however, it comprises cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). The impacts of larger values described by the macrosystem have a cascading manipulation among the interactions of all other layers. For instance if the society holds a belief that, a parent is solely responsible for bringing up their children, then it is obvious that the society is less probable to offer resources to help parents (Edwards, 1992). This consequently influences the structures in which the parents function, similarly affecting the child’s microsystem. The chronosystem – this system covers the measurement of time as it relates to a child’s surroundings. Elements determining this system can be either external, for instance, the timing of a parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological variations which appear as a child ages. As children advance in age, they may respond in a different way to changes in environment and may be more capable to establish more how that change will influence them (Henderson, 1995). How I was personally influenced It was only through the influences of the five environmental systems as outlined by Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory of ecological systems that I was able develop and join graduate school to obtain my masters degree. Immediate members of my family were the first to shape me. At the tender ages, my parents proved to be caring but also useful in my development. They made sure that whomever I had contact with was not a person of wanting behavior. At the family set up, my father not only made sure that the family’s economic background was stable but also ensured that, we were well supplied with the basic needs that made smooth our living environment. My mother on the other hand was full of advice as far as the correct behavioral attributes were concerned. She ensured that we were fed well, on top of affording the much-required filial love for a developing child. Both parents were influential in according us protection. When I entered school, my father this time started to play a very crucial role in showing me how to tackle assignments in as well as encouraging me to have determination in whatever I was doing. This encouragement formed upon which modeled me to enter graduate school in the later years. The school environment was very encouraging, as far as peers seemed to be cooperative. Generally, there was mood of co-existence among ourselves, working in harmony as well helping one another whenever our teachers requested us to do something. Our teachers always reminded us that discipline was the key to success in any academic setting. The teachers made sure that they demonstrated best behavioral standards required of us. Our teachers standard of perfection was exceptional thus to us they served as role models in our development. This type of interaction constituted what Urie Bronfenbrenner referred to as microsystem of development On the subject of mesosystem, my parents used to correspond with my teachers on issues associated with my academic progress as well as my behavior. My teacher could inform my parents on the areas I required to put more pressure as far as academia was concerned, a feature of which I belief facilitated in shaping my development towards this end. My parents in rejoinder furnished my teachers with the significant information touching on the development of my behavior. I can vaguely recollect that at one time, my father was called by my teacher where he was highlighted on the substance of ensuring that I was accorded free time from house chores so that I could do my assignments, as this could help improve my grades. My father was affirmative on the proposal and after this discussion, house chores were transferred to other members of our family. The teachers in general were very challenging and encouraging. For instance, our psychology teacher impressed me through his presentation of ideas as well as ideologies. His attitude of arrangement, for instance he could chronologically evaluate child development issues very brilliantly and plainly throughout the important development stages in a very touching manner. I came to admire him most and I was determined to follow his footsteps. My father’s place of work was also influential in shaping my development, as my father worked five hours, four days a week. This kind of structure ensured that my father had ample time with his family. In time of need, my father’s employer showed concern and permitted him to attend whatever was required of him at home. Our country’s school policy was also imperative in shaping me towards this end. Through the state, I was able to acquired a scholarship. Save for the same, I could have been affected badly financially. References Edwards, P. , Young, L. (1992). Beyond parents: Family, community, and school involvement. Phi Delta Kappan, 74, 72-80. Addison, J. T. (1992). Urie Bronfenbrenner. Human Ecology, 20(2), 16-20. Berk, L. E. (2000). Child Development (5th ed. ). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 23-38 Henderson, Z. P. (1995). Renewing our social fabric. Human Ecology, 23(1), 16-19.

The Easter Rising Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Easter Rising - Research Paper Example The first day of the rebellion was Monday, April 24, 1916, with approximately 1200 rebels participating in the fight against the government. The men were all volunteers but were less than what was expected due to the extreme secrecy of the group and the doubts some did have about the plan of attack. The plan was to use the General Post Office as their center of command due to its solid structure and ease of defense. As was to be proved later on while the GPO did have the advantage of defense, it would prove difficult to command the rebellion factions from it or plan attacks (Friedrich 10). Debate has risen over the significance of the GPO with some experts arguing that it was due to its symbolism of British imperialism that it was taken. The GPO was one of the largest buildings in the city and having being built by the British many saw it as a symbol of their superiority only comparable to Dublin Castle. By Noon on Monday most of those who had volunteered to fight took their position s divided into 4 battalions. The first battalion was led by Ned Daly who was to take control of the 4 courts with 250 men while the second Batallion led by Thomas MacDonagh was told to take charge of a biscuit factory South of the city center (Ciment and Russell 291), the factory was possibly to be a source of food as the fighting continued. The third battalion comprised of 130 men and was led by Eamon de Valera who were to control a bakery and Eamonn Ceannt was in charge of the 4th battalion that was made of 100 men and were to take charge of the Dolhpins barn in Emerald square in the town center and to prevent a counterattack by the Irish Army. The British government as well as most of the Irish population was taken by surprise at the commencement of the attack and responses were disorganized especially since Britain was at the time at war with Germany. The squad that was in City Hall with Conolly came under intense fire and soon had to surrender, Sean Conolly who was the commande r of the group was shot dead in the fight and several others were arrested. The fourth battalion also faced some fire from the British army but they managed to hold their positions ("The 1916 uprising..."). On Tuesday April 25th the battle of Mount street canal was fought between the British soldiers and the insurgents. The British infantry had been commanded to take the most direct route to the Dublin Castle as this was where the British headquarters and so was a point of political and strategic importance. The castle was where the then incumbent Viceroy Lord Wimborne resided in and was also where commands were dispatched from. Sherwood Foresters had to pass through Northumberland Road in spite of the dangers that the place would pose as members of the rebellion had captured neighboring territories. As the group cut into Haddington Road, they were attacked by rebels resulting in Captain Dietrchsen being injured. This also signaled the other rebels to inform them that an attack had begun and they too began to fire on the foresters (Mcnally 76). The foresters attacked the group that was located in No. 25 that was behind them and had initiated the attack. The rebels had however prepared for this and had barricaded the doors and windows resulting in the British Foresters being cornered in the open road. Attempts to escape by dodging to the other side of the street were countered by a brigade that pushed them

The Whiskey Rebellion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Whiskey Rebellion - Essay Example After the American Revolution the nation suffered unsettled economic conditions and a severe depression. Paper money was in circulation, but little of it was honored at face value. Most of those who were harmed by the depression were property-less and thus unable to vote. In Massachusetts the "sound money" merchants and bankers men controlled the government. The quarrel grew until thousands of men in the western counties of Massachusetts rose in armed revolt. They were led by Daniel Shays (1747-1825), a captain during the American Revolution. Shays' Rebellion lasted from August 1786 to February 1787. The agitators objected to heavy land and poll taxes, the high cost of lawsuits, high salaries of state officials, oppressive court decisions, and dictatorial rulings of the state senate. In Northampton on August 29 the mob succeeded in keeping the courts closed so debtors could not be tried and put into prison. Fearful of being tried for treason for this action, Shays and his men broke up the state Supreme Court session at Springfield the following month. The revolt took a more serious turn when Shays and a force of 1,200 men returned to Springfield in January to capture the arsenal. Action by the national government prevented the attack on January 25. Most of the insurgents were captured in early February, ending the rebellion. The leaders were condemned to death for treason but were later pardoned. Shays himself later received a war pension for his service in the American Revolution. Shays' Rebellion was one of several disturbances in different states. It hastened the movement for a federal government strong enough "to ensure domestic tranquility," as stated in the preamble to the Constitution, which established the United States. And this Constitution broughtthe first use by the new federal government of its constitutional power to uphold the government of each state, as the Whiskey Rebellion broke out. Western Pennsylvania had a history of wanting to be separate. As early as 1775 the Transylvanians petitioned the Continental Congress to be recognized as the fourteenth colony. In 1776 the people in the region claimed by both Pennsylvania and Virginia, announced that they were the new state of West Sylvania. They said that "no country or people can be either rich, flourishing, happy or free . . . whilst annexed to or dependent on any province, whose seat of government is . . . four or five hundred miles distant, and separated by a vast, extensive and almost impassible tract of mountains . . ." On January 15, 1788, Lord Dorchester, the governor-general of Canada, sentJohn Connolly (previously in charge of Ft. Pitt) to Western Pa. to talk to General John Neville, General Samuel Parsons and other Pittsburghers sympathetic to the British cause to determine the likelihood of the West separating from the East. After receiving the report Dorchester then send a letter to Lord Sydney advising him to aid the West in separating from the Union. Indians led by the Britishraided the Pennsylvania areas west of the mountains. The United States sent two major military expeditions against the eastern Indians. The first, in 1790, was led by General Josiah Harmer and the second, in 1791, was led by General Arthur St. Clair. Both expeditions were defeated by the Indians! It wasn't until 1794 that General Anthony Wayne defeated the British at Fallen Timbers and the British actually withdrew from the region, giving up on any hope of claim to the areas west of the

The relationship between per capita gross domestic product and both Assignment

The relationship between per capita gross domestic product and both secondary school enrolment rate and bank rates - Assignment Example The paper tells that gross domestic product is the measure of a country’s total productivity level. It refers to the total cost of output in commodities. Elements of gross domestic product include ‘consumption, investment, government purchase, and net export’. Both consumption and net export of an economy are factors of the territory’s available economic resources and its level of disposable income. With high levels of disposable income, people are able to purchase into consumptions as well as invest into export dealings. Investments, on the other hand, refer to monetary value of resources that are used for production processes. Whether through private or public sector, investment rates and levels depend on the availability of resources and the capacity to acquire such resources through savings or borrowings. The last component of gross domestic product is government expenditure through central government, local governments, and governmental institutions in public utilities such as education. Per capita gross domestic product measures the net output per person. It therefore depends on a country’s population size and may have a different trend from the real gross domestic product. One of the fundamental contributors to economic growth is the availability of resources for injection into the economy. Since financial institutions are a source of monetary resource through provision of loans, they are of prime importance to economic growth. Provision of loans to investors and private consumers for instance has direct effects on consumption, investments, and net export... It refers to the total cost of output in commodities. Elements of gross domestic product include ‘consumption, investment, government purchase, and net export’ (Mankiw, 2008, p. 496). Both consumption and net export of an economy are factors of the territory’s available economic resources and its level of disposable income. With high levels of disposable income, people are able to purchase into consumptions as well as invest into export dealings. Investments, on the other hand, refer to monetary value of resources that are used for production processes. Whether through private or public sector, investment rates and levels depend on the availability of resources and the capacity to acquire such resources through savings or borrowings. The last component of gross domestic product is government expenditure through central government, local governments, and governmental institutions in public utilities such as education (Mankiw, 2011, p. 198). Per capita gross domesti c product measures the net output per person. It therefore depends on a country’s population size and may have a different trend from the real gross domestic product (Boyes and Melvin, 2007, p. 389, 390). One of the fundamental contributors to economic growth is the availability of resources for injection into the economy. Since financial institutions are a source of monetary resource through provision of loans, they are of prime importance to economic growth. Provision of loans to investors and private consumers for instance has direct effects on consumption, investments, and net export (Brooks, 2008, p. 502; Yartey et al, 2008, p. 22). Credit rates of banks, which is a factor to their lending capacity determines availability of loans to investors and consumers. Similarly, lower

Fair Value Accounting (FVA) in Barclays Bank Plc

Fair Value Accounting (FVA) in Barclays Bank Plc Before starting Research Methods, it is vitally important to understand the real meaning of Research in general. Research is a planned and methodical approach of finding answers to the questions'(R Cottrell J F McKenzie; 2010) It is an organized set of actions and steps which we will follow to achieve our objectives. There are many factors in Research Method which are always done to get the most precise results. Research is a pre-planned method, not a spontaneous approach. It is focused and limited to a particular scope. A good research is focused on appropriate, valuable, imperative questions and their answers. If there are no questions, there is no point of doing research and similarly finding answers to those questions is the most important. Whether its an answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question. A good research is ineffective unless we find the answers to the questions. A good Research is a major key to complete a successful project, report or Dissertation because if the research is not professional and well organized, then it is nearly impossible to complete a Project or Dissertation. TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS:- Research methods can be categorised into two types. They are:- Deductive Research and Inductive Research. In research methods, conclusions are based on these two methods. Both are widely used in research projects. DEDUCTIVE METHOD:- Deduction follows an approach which is top-down or from general to specific. Aristotle a Greek philosopher described deduction as Drawing conclusions by applying rules or principles; logically moving from a general rule or principle to a specific solution(www.hubpages.com/hub/Types-of-Research Dated:03-05-2010) It is the procedure of getting a conclusion that is certain to pursue, if the data given is factual and the analysis used to achieve the conclusion is right. In deductive method, the grounds (facts) give an assurance of 100% accurate conclusion. EXAMPLE OF DEDUCTIVE METHOD:- There are 15 packs of cigarettes on the top-shelf of the cigarette case, There are 7 packs of cigarettes on the lower-shelf of the cigarette case. There are no cigarettes anywhere on the middle-shelf cigarette case From the above, it can be concluded that there are 22 packs of cigarettes in the cigarette case. INDUCTIVE METHOD: Induction method is from precise to general. In induction, we scrutinize some events, deduct a pattern and draw conclusion. This method involves moving from an exact condition to a common conclusion. This method is undefined and investigative. It does not give 100% assurance of reality but a chance of being accurate. EXAMPLE OF INDUCTION METHOD:- This coffee is hot. (Specific, based on a direct observation.) All coffees are hot. (General, can be applied to any ice) OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH METHODS: The key objectives of this research are:- To Critically Analyze the Role of Fair Value Accounting (FVA) in Barclays Bank Plc. Norbury Branch, London and what are its effects on Barclays Bank Plc. before, during and after Credit Crunch? To Investigate whether the systematic risk is associated with the financial crises of Barclays Bank Plc. or not? To Highlight the impact of market to market reporting in contributing financial difficulties for Barclays Bank Plc. To Find out the contagion of Barclays Bank Plc with Recommendations Conclusion. KEY LITERATURE REVIEW:- An efficient banking system is an indicator of sustainable economy (Imola; 2006). Banks perform fundamental roles not only in financial system of a country but also globally due to their nature of business performance and corresponding assets policy. Banks play the role of financial intermediaries in an economy (Imola; 2006) FAIR VALUE ACCOUNTING: DEFINITION: Financial Accounting Standards define Fair Value Accounting as: The price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date (Whittgton; 2008) ROLE OF FAIR VALUE ACCOUNTING AND ITS BACKGROUND: In accounting, fair value is used as an estimate of the market value of an asset or liability for which a market price cannot be determined. The measurement of assets and liabilities takes place at three levels. At the first level, the fair value of an asset or liability is calculated at quoted prices if the market is active for that asset and liability. At second level, the cost of similar assets and liabilities are taken for evaluation and at last level, the market for these assets and liabilities are not available, the standard supports to use market to model approach for valuation of assets and liabilities (MacNamara; 2009). Evaluation of assets and liabilities at Level three is considered to be more problematic. This increases the manipulation risk because of non availability of market prices. (Penman; 2009) argue that for most of the loans, the quoted prices are not available in the markets. Even if the prices for these loans are available, they do not reflect the private information of these loans for banks. Therefore, to determine the fair value of these loans, different valuation models are used (Penman; 2007). Financial Accounting Standards (FAS) allows financial institutions to report their assets at level three but the opponents of (FAS) argue that it has forced banks to value troubled securities at lower prices (MacNamara; 2009). Wall Street Journal claims that the reporting of assets and liabilities on Fair Value Accounting (FVA) causes financial institutions and banks to write down their mortgage backed securities (Gold, 2008). However, most of accountants, regulators and investors defend this by arguing that it provides more accurate and transparent reflection of a company‘s position (MacNamara; 2009). Kurt N. Schacht managing director of CFA (Institute of Chartered Financial Accountants) argues that fair value measurement is only relevant information under the prevailing circumstances (Gold; 2008). ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FAIR VALUE ACCOUNTING (FVA):- Many Banks around the world have started revising their estimates of credit losses. Several parties blame FVA for the sub prime crisis (G.Ryan; 2008). The controversy has been observed during the discussion paper on Statements of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS 2006) that the interpretations made by Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) about fair value ignored the transaction costs and entity‘s specific assumptions (Whittington; 2008). However, the advocators of FVA argue that FVA is not responsible for crisis. It is just a reporting and measurement system of assets and liabilities (Christian Laux; 2009). Wallace (2009) suggests that the fair value accounting is not the main cause of current financial crisis. He names it as a messenger of current crisis and advocates that FVA has helped us to recognize the problem earlier otherwise the situation would be much worse as compare to its current position (Wallace; 2009). Moreover, the advocators argue that the accounting rules contradict with framework of institutions. They point out that sometime managers make deviations from market prices due to their own interests (Christian Laux; 2009). Singleton (2006) argues that historical cost accounting is out of date and there is a strong possibility that management manipulate it. In modern era, the current values based reporting (e.g. market based) are more relevant and reliable. Henceforth, the supporters suggest that it is difficult to say that FVA is responsible for the current crisis (Singeton; 2006). The supporters further assert that under FVA, assets and liabilities are recorded at the price, at which these assets and liabilities can be sold (Gold; 2008). Thus, FVA represents the current market condition and provides accurate financial information of an entity. (Stephen; 2006). In support of FVA, Stephen Penman (2006) mentions the following points. Firstly, inventors are more interested in value not in cost. Secondly, in prevailing situations the historical prices are not relevant to provide up to date financial position of a business. Thirdly, the fair value is based on reality of assets and liabilities actual financial position. Further, it reflects the true economic substance. Finally, as markets are efficient, they are not influenced by a single firm or business. Therefore, the information based on market prices is more relevant (Stephen; 2006). Finnegan (2009) concludes that FVA is suitable to apply in both periods e.g. when market prices are available as well as when markets are inactive and market prices are not available (I.Victor; 2009). However, the opponent asserts that FVA is irrelevant and misleading especially for those assets and liabilities which are held for long term (held to maturity).They further argue: firstly, as efficient market hypothesis theory does not always true in real life. It fails in some situations. Therefore, in the situation of inefficient market FVA provides wrong information to investors and creates liquidity problems. Secondly, FVA measurement model are not reliable and finally, FVA contributes pro cyclicality in the financial system (Mary E. Barth; 1995). In spite of all criticism, The FASB IASB believe that fair value measurement of financial assets is more relevant in producing useful financial position of firm as compare to historical cost based measurements. They argue that fair value shows the current cash equivalent of the business‘s financial instruments rather than the price of acquisition of financial instruments (Benston; 2008). Further, supporting FVA, the former chairman of SEC Mr. Breeden, suggests that all financial institutions like banks as well as publicly held companies should report their financial position on market based because market based information are most relevant to financial attributes (Mary E. Barth; 1995). Allen and Carletti (2008) assert that banks may become insolvent with the effect of market to market prices. The valuation based on market prices creates instability in market prices that affect the value of banking assets and this leads to ruin banking portfolio and contagion (Mahan, 2009). However, the advocators of FVA assert that it has provided early warning of current crisis and asked banks to take corrective actions (Wallance; 2009). Mahan (2009) points out that the fair value is not a single reason of the current crisis the other factors, for example, inadequate risk management, poor lending requirements, the assessment of rating agencies and insufficient capital requirements are also contributors of these crisis. Mahan (2009) claims that the banking regulation, especially the capital requirement is also one of major reason in failure of banks. However, the logic behind the capital requirement of regulators and central bank is the same as the secured loans issue by banks to creditors to protect market from financial distress and keep insurance of market discipline. Recently, the London based International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) declared that they are going to change the market to market rule and will follows the United States Standard. Recently, the US companies are reporting their assets under level three categories (Morgan; 2009). BARCLAYs BANK PLC. CONCERN ABOUT FAIR VALUE ACCOUNTING (FVA) DURING FINANCIAL CRISIS:- Barclays explain the following reasons for rejection of FVA during financial crises. Firstly, they argue the FVA is irrelevant for investors. It does not communicate the rationality (Christian Laux; 2009). Critics of FVA have accused it of pouring fuel on the fire rather than simply measuring the flame (Morley; 2008). Secondly, it is not suitable for banking industry and finally, they said fair value is inappropriate for those assets which are held for long term (i.e. held to maturity) and the assets which have no active market (i.e. for illiquid assets). In the mid of 2008, when the crisis reached at its maximum point, the bank started blaming FVA and their main focus of criticism was the valuation of liquid assets. Barclays argue that FVA has played an effective role in creating these crises. On the other side of the coin, (Ball; 2000) (Leuz; 2003) suggested that investors, and other interested groups e.g. Accountants and customers have opposite opinion. These interested groups are against the suspension of FVA standards. For example, during November 2008, the joint letter to SEC the Consumer Federation of America, Centre for Audit Quality, Council of Institutional Investors, Investment Management Association, and CFA Institute assert that investors are more confident on the standards (i.e. FVA) which are more transparent and report current and relevant information for valuation of financial instruments regardless of the direction of markets (Christian Laux; 2009). Nicolas (2008) argues that the illiquidity criticism spots light at the market conditions for many financial instruments. These instruments were imbalanced from August 2007 and were not reporting the true prices in markets on the basis of demand and supply principle. Most of prices did not reflect the potential to generate the future cash flows associated with an assets or investment. Nicolas (2008) further argues that fair value compelled Barclays Bank Plc. to record assets and liabilities on the value which is unjustified by economic conditions. Resultantly, Barclays Bank Plc. was forced to raise new capital under depressed valuation conditions to meet the legal solvency requirements which resulted in reduction in the equity value of existing shareholders. The pro-cyclicality criticism of fair value is based on the idea that when there is boost in market prices it apparently strengths the balance sheet of Barclays Bank. However, in the time of reduction in market prices, it damages the economic position of the bank more severely (Amola; 2006). Futher, Nicolas ( 2008) argues that as the studies support that markets do not work efficiently during the time of crisis when every participant is in the condition of uncertainty and market information are disordered. Therefore, the accounting standards which rely on market‘s information, damages the decision of it‘s users. Additionally, he argues that criticism of pro-cyclicality of FVA is not only when markets are inactive for securities but also in the normal conditions of economy (Nicolas; 2008). Regardless of criticism of FVA, Wallace (2009) suggests that elimination of fair value standards is not solution to the problem. The government should focus on stabilizing the financial markets, rebuilding investors confidence by promoting liquidity conditions in markets and improving regulations (Wallace; 2009). Barclays Bank can overcome the shortcomings of historical cost accounting. Reporting at FVA standards, the bank can record their financial instruments including loans at fair value (market based price). Buckland (2005) also argues that for the purpose of monitoring and supervision, the supporters of FVA consider it more reliable source of information. EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:- During existing literature review, I observed that mostly, the underlying subject has been discussed working papers, reports, conferences and general argumentations. The following literatures give the guidelines to understand the issues related to financial crisis, systemic risk and FVA standards. I went through the following literature to understand my topic of research. Magnan (2009) provides general overview of FVA on financial statements. He briefly explains the origins of FVA, its applications and role in the financial crisis. He believes that FVA has contributed in acceleration of financial crisis especially in banks and financial institutions (Magnon; 2009). Magnan (2009) explains, how fair value has contributed and created financial crisis? He describes that at the start of 2007, some of the financial institution‘s (including Barclays Plc.) assets and liabilities drop in value and this drop in value forced these institutions to report assets and liabilities lower at their balance sheets. This reporting at lower value negatively affected their capital adequacy ratios (Magnan; 2009) Morley (2008) discusses the role of accounting standard setters and their comments about the FVA. Further, spotting light at the problems of FVA they argue that the sharp fall in market values of many financial instruments adversely affect the market price of these instruments. Additionally, they point out the challenges IASB is facing after the recent financial crisis. They state that the political threat to IASB‘s independence and credibility is continuously growing. Moreover, the headlines such as, Bank‘s accounting gets murkier (Wall Street Journal, November, 11, 2008). The third quarter reports of banks provide evidence that bank‘s accounting system get murkier e.g. The Royal Bank of Scotland is said to have avoided booking à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤1.4 billion of losses as a result of the rule change, and Deutsche Bank, Lloyds TSB and HSBC collectively are said to have avoided booking losses of â‚ ¬1.5 billion (Morley; 2008). SYSTEMATIC RISK-DEFINITION:- The banking regulations were introduced in the system to avoid systemic risk in the sector (Allen; 1995). The regulators of prudential law are fully aware of the danger that systemic risk can produce in the banking sector. Systemic risk is the risk that can breakdown an entire system (Acharya; 2002). Kaufman (2003) founded that there is high correlation between systemic risk and failure of banking system in a country, a number of countries or throughout the world. Sohnke. M (2005) defines systemic risk as The risk of a failure of the global banking system resulting from a failure of the global inter-bank payment system (Sohnke M; 2005). SYSTEMATIC RISK BANKING SYSTEM:- In the case of the banking industry, all banks are connecting to each other due to inter-banking transactions (Sohnke M; 2005). They have common deposits, loans, payment systems and other different indirect services to other financial institutions. Inter-banking system works within a country as well as across countries. Therefore, the adverse shock that effects on a bank in a system damages the entire system. Thus, the insolvency of one bank transforms the insolvencies of other banks in the system. The theory and evidence advocate that the danger of contagious systemic risk in the banking industry is faster and stronger as compare to any other industry (Kaufman Scott, 2003). Additionally, Kaufman (2003) suggests that the initial failure of a bank starts knock on reaction in the system. However, at the start of this shock, the other banks do not expect its transmission to them. Kaufman (2003) explains that if a bank has smaller capital to assets ratio, this means that the bank is highly leveraged. Therefore, this set of banks transfer their insolvency to other banks in a system (Khan; 2009). Moreover, Kaufman (2003) suggests that in banks, the downward trend in the credit market affects the quality of private and public information. This information also increases the uncertainty in the credit market and badly affects these market conditions. In such situations of uncertainty no participant wants to take risks. Therefore, investors quickly transfer their funds to a safer place (Kaufman Scott; 2003). Cifuentes, Ferrucci, and Shin (2005) argue that when assets and liabilities are reported on market to market basis and there are also external solvency requirements (e.g. prudential regulation), these situations lead to increase of risk in the financial system. They further argue that when the prices of assets are falling, these assets disrupt the solvency ratio of firms. Prudential regulations in banking system demand banks to maintain capital reserves for their solvency in estimation of risk associated with institutions (Khan; 2009). Plantin (2008) has observed that banks sell their assets when prices of assets were falling and purchased assets when prices were rising. Such acts of banks increased the volatility in market prices which increased the probability of rise in the systemic risk in banking sector. MARKET TO MARKET REPORTING FAIR VALUE ACCOUNTING:- Plannutin (2008) suggest that when markets are inactive, FVA becomes more inefficient as compare to historical based accounting (Plannutin G; 2008). As market to market accounting increases the probability of pro-cyclical trades that creates the illiquidity situation in markets. The logic behind is that when the market is illiquid for particular assets as compare to other assets which have active market, the sale of assets adversely affects the price of assets and firm for whom there is no seller or buyer ( Khan; 2008). Therefore, it can be argued that under the FVA reporting (which is based on market to market), prices of assets and liabilities further decline prices of assets and liabilities for which no markets exist. Further, in such situations of uncertainty, the management of these firms sell these assets at lower prices. In reaction to this, pro-cyclical trades starts which increase the overall risk especially in the banking sector. Therefore, we can understand that during the recent financial crisis, how the FVA is associated with the systemic risk of banking system? As the market for banking assets became illiquid during the financial crisis and sale of assets of other firms increased pressure on bank‘s management to sell their asset at lower prices (Pollock A 2008). JUSTIFICATION:- Why I have chosen the role fair value accounting in Barclays Bank Plc.? Being a student of MBA Banking and finance, this topic will give me a unique opportunity to cover both fields of my MBA in one research i.e Banking as well as Finance. Fair value accounting will help me to learn about the finance and financial crises while FVAs role in Barclays Bank Plc. will give me a chance to understand more about UK Banking system. This topic will also provide me empirical evidence about the role of fair value accounting in Barclays Bank Plc. I have a strong desire to built my career in Banking or Finance sector in future as those two fields are of my interest so definitely, this topic will be help me to achieve my future goals. It is also pertinent to mention here that three of my close friends working in Barclays Bank Plc. (two of them working in the same branch i.e.Norbury, london) which will give me an easy access to the data to complete my research methods/dissertation without any hurdles. HYPOTHESIS:- To make an assumption or prediction about any research is not an easy thing to do but on the basis of literature review, I can predict that the role of Fair Value Accounting (FVA) in Barclays Bank Plc. has a positive effect on UK Banking industry as (Nicolas; 2008) argues that Fair Value Accounting compelled Banks to record assets and liabilities on the value which is unjustified by economic conditions and it has played an important role in Barclays Bank Plc. success during credit crunch. I can also predict that the systematic risk is not associated with the financial crisis of Barclays Bank Plc. and by highlighting the impact of market to market reporting in financial difficulties for Barclays Bank Plc, It is assumed that its contribution for the banking industry was vital during financial crisis. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:- Research methodology consists of two types of research. They are:- Primary Research. Secondary Research. PRIMARY RESEARCH:- Primary Research is research which is used to gather statistics for a precise task. Types of primary data collection methods include:- Personal Observation:  The observation of the respondent by a skilled observer or by electronic tools e.g camera, video. The aim is to observe customer response and activities to a product or consumer service. Personal Interviews:  Face to face interview between an interviewer and the respondent. ADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL INTERVIEWS:- In detail answers achievable. Qualitative statistics can be obtained from small sample. Observation improves precision. Understanding leads to less refusals. DISADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL INTERVIEWS:- Costs qualified Interviewer expensive. Interviewer bias. Difficult to get an appointment if the interviewer is a busy person. Invasion of privacy. FINDINGS ANALYSIS-PRIMARY RESEARCH:- SCOPE OF QUALITATIVE METHOD:- To collect the primary data for my qualitative analysis, Ill develop questionnaires to identify answers of the research questions in the dissertation. Ill follow (B Healey; 2005) approach who developed close ended questionnaires with check boxes to answer these questions. Gannon (2001) asserts that amongst all the other research techniques, the questionnaires have been given high priority due to negligible cost and scope for easy evaluation they offer. Close ended questionnaires are one of the most common used tools for getting opinions ( L H Wang; 2006). Further, it is an adequate way to get the opinion of experts from the relevant field of research that has good representation of practical experiences and expert knowledge. Underneath this logic, most of companies, Banks and government agencies use this method to collect information. LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE METHOD: Gannon (2001) critics that the information gathered as the results of questionnaires are limited because mostly questions ask in questionnaire allow only positive or negative response. Additionally, it is pragmatic that sometime the respondents refuse to answer certain questions or giving their answers in hazel and even sometime do not read the questions (Sproull; 2001). Chambers and Pretty claim that in spite of problem with answering the questionnaires, it was considered that it is time consuming, expensive and not suitable for reaching at conclusion ( Marslan; 2001) . SECONDARY RESEARCH:- Secondary research is the most general research method engaged in the every field today. It involves dealing out facts figures that has already been collected by a different party. With this research, researchers will check with previous studies and findings such as reports, press articles and earlier market research projects in order to come to a conclusion. This has comparatively low cost in comparison to  primary research. TYPES OF SECONDARY RESEARCH:- There are different types of resources offered for secondary research. The most well-known are: Published statistics: survey, housing and social security statistics Published texts: abstract work, secondary analysis by  experts  and reports Media: documentaries as a source of information Personal documents: diaries ADVANTAGES:- Economical and reachable especially at University/College Library. Often the only source, for example historical documents Books. Only way to look at major trends. DISADVANTAGES:- Lack of stability of perception. Biases and inaccuracy can not be checked Available data often increase more questions than they answer. The worry over whether  any  statistics can be completely detached from the perspective of its gathering or not. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS-SECONDARY RESEARCH:- SCOPE OF QUANTITATIVE METHOD:- Prior to 2004, UK firms and Barclays Bank Plc. were preparing their financial statements according to UK GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles). 2005 was the first year when International Accounting Standard Board (IASB) and UK Accounting Standard Board asked UK firms Banks including Barclays Bank Plc. to prepare and report their financial statements at IFRS. (Ormrod; 2007). Additionally, Gannon and Ashwal claim that more than hundred countries worldwide use International Accounting Standards on either a compulsory or on a permitted basis and more countries are expected to follow in the near future.(Ormrod; 2007). Ill consider year 2005 when Barclays Bank Plc. adopted IFRS as start of FVA regime. Henceforth, year 2005 to date, Ill take as my sample period for quantitative testing. Ill use secondary data sources to gather information for quantitative analysis eg Barclays website, Journals, Books. Ill collect the details of assets and liabilities which are reported at fair value of different banks from the web sites of these banks and then Ill compare them with Barclays Bank Plc. This study will provide me evidence that the difference between reporting assets and liabilities at fair value and book value on investment securities explains the share prices of insurance companies and banks as (Penman; 2007) described. LIMITATIONS OF QUANTITATIVE METHOD:- Mirosevich (2008) argues that most of quantitative methods are based on classical tests which produce correct results only when underlying assumptions are fulfilled. These tests produce incorrect P-values, effect sizes and confidence intervals when they violate the key assumptions to calculate P- values. Therefore, the evaluations of these results mislead the research objectivity (Mirosevich; 2008). The researchers observed that the assumptions made under quantitative methods to test hypotheses are mostly not correct in real life. Many factors are to be considered constant or assumed not affecting the dependent variables. Therefore, the results obtain from such tests are sometimes misleading the research goals (Mirosevich; 2008). RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION:- The debate of costs and benefits of fair value will go on and the analyses conducted in this study are considered to be a new addition to literature which addresses important and complex issues of FVA in current debate of accounting usefulness. These issues require further investigative studies. The financial crisis has made clear that the financial statements organizers need additional guidance to calculate fair values in illiquid markets. Users of these financial reports need better disclosures of financial information especially at the critical level 3 inputs. The users of financial information are interested to analyse the sensitivity of fair value measurements and its influence on the Barclays Bank Plc. Accounting standard-setters need to consider the demands of interested parties and issue guidance and disclosures accordingly. Preparers need to provide these disclosures in an informative fashion, and users must analyze them carefully and dispassionately. Additionally, accounting researchers and teachers can contribute to all of these processes. Indeed, for all of us who care about accounting and its role in the economy, there is much work need to be done (G.Ryan; 2008). Further, I believe that more time and research is required to determine reality that whether FVA has played its role in failure of Barclays Bank Plc. or not? To understand the role of FVA seems vital for future developments and implementations of accounting standards in Barclays Bank Plc. Additionally, future studies of FVA will give new shape and directions to financial reporting framework. I hope that over next few years, most likely the conduct of lot of empirical studies will give us a distinct answer to the question about the role of FVA in Barclays Bank Plc. during financial crisis. The debate of FVA mainly revolves around the issues cost and benefit of reporting assets and liabilities at fair value and its role during financial crisis. The researchers such as Penman (2007) Simatupang

The Issue of Inflation Control as an Objectice of Central Banks Essay e

The Issue of Inflation Control as an Objectice of Central Banks This paper looks at the issue of inflation control as an objective of central banks. Viewing the British Commonwealth and Continental European models of ‘zero inflation’ in contrast with the moderate inflation policy of the US provides a case against zero inflation as a policy objective. A variety of issues that surround inflation; e.g., the inflation/unemployment relationship, etc, will be brought to the fore. In the final analysis, it is clear that efforts to eradicate inflation are misguided and more moderate inflation is preferable in an era where steady economic growth is desirable. Introduction Hyper inflation has plagued most of the world’s developing countries over the past decades. Countries in the industrialised world, too, have at times duelled with dangerously high inflation rates in the post WWII era. With varying degrees of success, all have employed great efforts to bring their inflation rates within acceptable limits. Generally, a moderate rate of inflation has been the ultimate goal. More recently, however, a few countries have pursued policies that strive to eradicate inflation altogether through complete price stability. This has proven to be a contentious enterprise, which clearly indicates that there is still no universally accepted solution to the inflation problem. Indeed, there is not even an agreed consensus regarding the source of inflation itself. The monetarist perception that the root of inflation is solely the excessive creation of money remains. So too does the belief that inflation originates in the labour market. And amongst a variety of others, the opinion that inflation â€Å"serves the critical social purpose of resolving incompatible demands by different groups† is also strong. This last, and more widely accepted, case shows that the problem is hardly a technical one; but rather a political one. It highlights the now unquestionable fact that politics and inflation are inextricably linked. And as with all inherently political issues, consensus is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. But, political characteristics do provide flexibility. In some countries, high rates of inflation have clearly been compatible with rapid economic growth and fast rising standards of living. In such cases, it is quite reasonable to suggest that higher r... ...n and France. And unless the elusive benefits of zero inflation soon manifest themselves, it is only a matter of time before the rest of the ‘no inflation’ pack realises they are barking up the wrong tree. Bibliography: Akerlof, George., Dickens, William., Perry, George., ‘The Macroeconomics of Low Inflation’., Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (1996 NI) Dale, Reginald., ‘Zero Inflation is Not a Great Idea’., International Herald Tribune (Tuesday, September 10, 1996) Fortin, Pierre, ‘The Canadian Fiscal Problem: The Macroeconomic Connection’ in Lars Osberg and Pierre Fortin (eds.), Unnecessary Debts (Lorimer, 1996) Fortin, Pierre., ‘The Great Canadian Slump’., Canadian Journal of Economics (November 1996) Freedman, Charles, ‘The Role of Monetary Conditions and the Monetary Conditions Index in the Conduct of Policy’., in Bank of Canada Review (Autumn 1995) Friedman, Milton., ‘The Role of Monetary Policy’., American Economic Review (March, 1968) Frisch, Helmut., Theories of Inflation (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1983) Lovewell, Mark., ‘Getting to Zero: Bank of Canada Policy in Context’., in Bank of Canada Review (Autumn 1996)